Penobscott River Trade Route

Public·236 members

June 14, 2023

Fixing A Broken Heart (Cover)- Mark Carpio

Cardiac output (CO) can be further broken down as the product of stroke volume (SV), which is the blood volume ejected by one heartbeat, and heart rate (HR), which is the number of heartbeats per minute. Specifically, this is a measure of left ventricular output and a clinical indicator of left ventricular function. Therefore, conditions that affect heart rate or stroke volume then directly affect cardiac output. Heart rate is influenced by multiple factors, including neuronal and hormonal input (e.g., norepinephrine, epinephrine, acetylcholine, thyroid hormones), ion concentrations (e.g., Ca2+, K+), body temperature, chemoreception (i.e., blood oxygen levels, blood CO2 levels, and pH), and drugs (e.g., beta-blockers, muscarinic antagonists, digitalis), among others. Stroke volume is affected by three variables: contractility, afterload, and preload (remember the mnemonic SV CAP for Stroke Volume affected by Contractility, Afterload, and Preload).[4]